托福阅读真题第17套

DeterminingtheAgesofthePlanetsandtheUniverse

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TheplanetsofoursolarsystemallrevolvearoundtheSuninthesamedirectionandinorbitsthatlieinnearlythesameplane.Thisisstrongevidencethattheplanetsformedsimultaneouslyfromasinglediskofmaterialthatrotatedinthesamedirectionasthemodernplanets.

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Preciselywhentheplanetscameintobeinghasbeenadifficultissuetoresolve.WhileEarth’swaterisnecessaryforlife,itsabundanceneartheplanet’ssurfacemakesrapiderosioninevitable.Continuousalterationofthecrustbyerosionandalsobyigneous(volcanic)andmetamorphic(pressureandheatwithinEarth)processesmakesunlikelyanydiscoveryofrocksnearlyasoldasEarth.ThusgeologistshavehadtolookbeyondthisplanetintheireffortstodateEarth’sorigin.Fortunately,wedohavesamplesofrockthatappeartorepresenttheprimitivematerialofthesolarsystem.Thesesamplesaremeteorites,whichoriginateasextraterrestrialobjects,calledmeteors,thathavebeencapturedinEarth’sgravitationalfieldandhavethencrashedintoourplanet.

1.Accordingtoparagraphs1and2,whatevidenceleadsastronomerstobelievethatalltheplanetsformedatapproximatelythesametime?Samplesofrocksfromalltheplanetsarethesameage.

AlltheplanetsorbittheSuninthesamedirectionandinaboutthesameplane.Allplanetshavethesameigneousandmetamorphicprocesses.Thegravitationalfieldofeachplanetisaboutthesamestrength.Paragraphs1and2aremarkedwitharrows[→]2.

Theword”inevitable”inthepassageisclosetinmeaningtocontinuousobviouscertaineasy

3.WhichofthefollowingisNOTmentionedinparagraph2asacauseofconstantchangetoEarth’scrust?Water

Igneousprocesses

MetamorphicprocessesMeteorites

Paragraph2ismarkedwithanarrow[→]

223Paragraph3

Somemeteoritesconsistofrockymaterialand,accordingly,arecalledstonymeteorites.Othersaremetallicandhavebeendesignatedironmeteoriteseventhoughtheycontainlesseramountsofelementsotherthaniron.Stillothersconsistofmixturesofrockyandmetallicmaterialandthusarecalledstony-ironmeteorites.Meteorscomeinallsizes,fromsmallparticlestothesmallplanetsknownasasteroids;noasteroid,however,hasstruckEarthduringrecordedhumanhistory.Manymeteoritesappeartobefragmentsoflargerbodiesthathaveundergonecollisionsandbrokenintopieces.Ironmeteoritesarefragmentsoftheinteriorsofthesebodies,comparabletoEarth’score,andstonymeteoritesarefromouterportionsofthesebodies,comparabletoEarth’smantle(thelayerbetweenthecoreandoutercrust).4.

Theword”accordingly”inthepassageisclosetinmeaningtocorrespondinglyfrequentlyinterestinglyinformally

5.Whichofthefollowingcanbeinferredfromparagraph3aboutmeteorites?

Theircompositioncanhelpdeterminethepartofthelargerbodyfromwhichtheybrokeoff.

TheyaredifficulttodistinguishfromrocksinEarth’smantle.

TheircollisionswithEarthhavebecomemorefrequentthaninthepast.Theyareolderthantherestofthesolarsystem.Paragraph3ismarkedwithanarrow[→]

6.Accordingtoparagraph3,whichofthefollowingisacharacteristicofasteroids?Theyarethelargestmeteors.

Theyaremademostlyofironandothermetals.TheyoftencollidewithEarth.Theyaretheoldestmeteors.

Paragraph3ismarkedwithanarrow[→]

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Meteoriteshavebeenradiometricallydatedbymeansofseveraldecaysystems,includingrubidium-strontium,potassium-argon,anduranium-thorium.Thedatesthusderivedtendtoclusteraround4.6billionyears,whichsuggeststhatthisistheapproximateageofthesolarsystem.Aftermanymeteoriteshadbeendated,itwasgratifyingtofindthattheoldestagesobtainedforrocksgatheredonthesurfaceoftheMoonalsowereapproximately4.6billionyears.Thismust,indeed,betheageofthesolarsystem.AncientrockscanbefoundontheMoonbecausethelunarsurface,unlikethatofEarth,hasnowatertoweatheranderoderocksandischaracterizedbyonlyweakmovementsofitscrust.

2247.Whichofthefollowingcanbeinferredfromparagraph4abouttheradiometricdatingofmeteorites?

Scientiststriedseveraldifferentradiometricsystemsbeforefindingonethatworked.

Theradiometricdatingofdifferentmeteoritesproducedsimilarresults.Manymeteoritesweredamagedbytheradiometricdating.Radiometricdatingwasnotasaccurateasscientistsexpected.Paragraph4ismarkedwithanarrow[→]8.

Theword”cluster”inthepassageisclosetinmeaningtoapproachspreadgroupvary

9.Accordingtoparagraph4,whyarescientistsconfidentthattheageoftheoldestmeteoritestheystudiedisalsotheageofthesolarsystem?Radiometricdatinghasbeenproventobereliable.

TheoldestrocksfoundonthesurfaceoftheMoonarethesameageasthemeteorites.

Nometeoriteshavebeenfoundthatareyoungerthan4.6billionyearsold.MeteoritesontheMoonarethesameageasthoseonotherplanets.Paragraph4ismarkedwithanarrow[→]

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Determiningtheageoftheuniversehasbeenmorecomplicated.Moststarsintheuniverseareclusteredintoenormousdisk-likegalaxies.Thedistancebetweenourgalaxy,knownastheMilkyWay,andallothersisincreasing.Infact,allgalaxiesaremovingawayfromoneanother,evidencethattheuniverseisexpanding.Itisnotthegalaxiesthemselvesthatareexpandingbutthespacebetweenthem.Whatishappeningisanalogoustoinflatingaballoonwithsmallcoinsattachedtoitssurface.Thecoinsbehavelikegalaxies:althoughtheydonotexpand,thespacebetweenthemdoes.Beforethegalaxiesformed,matterthattheycontainwasconcentratedwithinfinitedensityatasinglepointfromwhichitexplodedinaneventcalledthebigbang.Evenafteritassembledintogalaxies,mattercontinuedtospreadinalldirectionsfromthesiteofthebigbang.

10.Theword”enormous”inthepassageisclosetinmeaningtoexpandingverybrightdistanthuge

11.Whydoestheauthorreferto“inflatingaballoonwithsmallcoinsattachedtoits

225

surface”?

Tohelpexplainhowtheuniversecanexpandwhilethegalaxiesremainthesamesize

Toimplythattheuniversemusteventuallystopexpanding

Tosupportthestatementthatmoststarsarefoundindisk-shapedgalaxiesTohelpexplainhowtheuniversebeganasasinglepointofdensematter

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Theevidencethattheuniverseisexpandingmakesitpossibletoestimateitsage.Thisevidence,calledtheredshift,isanincreaseinthewavelengthsoflightwavestravelingthroughspace—ashifttowardtheredendofthevisiblespectrumofwavelengths.Expansionofthespacebetweengalaxiescausesthisshiftbystretchinglightwavesastheypassthroughit.Thefarthertheselightwaveshavetraveledthroughspace,thegreatertheredshifttheyhaveundergone.Forthisreason,lightwavesthatreachEarthfromdistantgalaxieshavelargerredshiftsthanthosefromnearbygalaxies.Calculationsbasedontheseredshiftsindicatethatabout13.7billionyearsagoallofthegalaxieswouldhavebeenatonespot,thesiteofthebigbang.This,then,istheapproximatedateofthebigbangandtheageoftheuniverse.

12.Accordingtoparagraph6,howdidastronomerslearnthattheuniverseisexpanding?

Bymeasuringthedistancebetweengalaxies

Byobservingthemovementofstarswithingalaxies

BystudyingthewavelengthsoflightfromdistantgalaxiesBycomparingthesizesofdifferentgalaxiesParagraph6ismarkedwithanarrow[→]

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■Somemeteoritesconsistofrockymaterialand,accordingly,arecalledstonymeteorites.■Othersaremetallicandhavebeendesignatedironmeteoriteseventhoughtheycontainlesseramountsofelementsotherthaniron.■Stillothersconsistofmixturesofrockyandmetallicmaterialandthusarecalledstony-ironmeteorites.■Meteorscomeinallsizes,fromsmallparticlestothesmallplanetsknownasasteroids;noasteroid,however,hasstruckEarthduringrecordedhumanhistory.Manymeteoritesappeartobefragmentsoflargerbodiesthathaveundergonecollisionsandbrokenintopieces.Ironmeteoritesarefragmentsoftheinteriorsofthesebodies,comparabletoEarth’score,andstonymeteoritesarefromouterportionsofthesebodies,comparabletoEarth’smantle(thelayerbetweenthecoreandoutercrust).

13.Lookatthefoursquares[■]thatindicatewherethefollowingsentencecouldbeaddedtothepassage.

Severalvarietiesofmeteoriteshavebeenobserved.

226Wherewouldthesentencebestfit?Clickonasquare[■]toaddthesentencetothepassage.

14.Directions:Anintroductorysentenceforabriefsummaryofthepassageisprovidedbelow.CompletethesummarybyselectingtheTHREEanswerchoicesthatexpressthemostimportantideasinthepassage.Someanswerchoicesdonotbelonginthesummarybecausetheyexpressideasthatarenotpresentedinthepassageorareminorideasinthepassage.Thisquestionisworth2points.

Dragyourchoicestothespaceswheretheybelong.Toreviewthepassage,clickon

ViewText.Thereisstrongevidencethatalltheplanetsofoursolarsystemwereformedfromthesamediskofmatteratthesametime.●●●AnswerChoices

A.DeterminingtheageoftheplanetsbyexaminingrocksonEarthisdifficultbecauseEarth’scrustisconstantlychanging.

B.MeteoritesfoundonEarthandrocksfromtheMoon’ssurfacearethebestevidenceforestimatingtheageoftheplanets.

C.Theexpansionoftheuniversemakesitpossibletoestimateitsagebymeasuringtheamountoftheredshiftoflightcomingfromdistantgalaxies.

D.AllthreekindsofmeteoritesaresimilarincompositiontoEarthinthattheyhaveaninnercore,arockymantle,andanoutercrust.

E.RadiometricdatingofmeteoritesrecoveredfromtheMoonshowsthattheyareolderthanthosethatarefoundonEarth.

F.Theredshiftphenomenonmeasurestherateatwhichthestarsinagalaxyaremovingawayfromeachother.

CostsandBenefitsofDispersal（17年上半年再次考过）

Paragraph1

Inordertomovefromonehomebasetoanother,animalsmustexpendcaloriesnotonlywhilemovingbutevenbeforethedispersalwhentheyinvestinthedevelopmentofthemusclesneededtomove.Forexample,ifacricketistoleaveadeterioratingenvironmentandmovetoanewandbetterplace,itwillneedlargeflightmusclestoflyaway.Presumably,thecaloriesandmaterialsthatgointoflightmuscledevelopmentandmaintenancehavetocomeoutofthegeneralenergybudgetoftheanimal.Thismeansthatotherorgansystemscannotdevelopasrapidlyastheycouldotherwise,whichmaymeanthattheflight-capableindividualis,insomeotherrespects,lessfittosurvive.

2271.Theword”Presumably”inthepassageisclosetinmeaningtoItisreasonabletoassumeItispossibleItcanbearguedItiscertainlytrue

2.Inparagraph1,thediscussionofcricketdispersalisusedtoillustratewhichofthefollowingprinciples?

Fordispersinganimals,thebenefitsofdispersalexceedthecosts.Dispersalalwaysinvolvescostsforthedispersinganimal.

Onlyanimalswiththegreatestfitnessforsurvivalareabletodisperse.Dispersal,asmuchasorgandevelopment,requiresenergy.Paragraph1ismarkedwithanarrow[→]

Paragraph 2

Dispersing individuals not only have to pay energetic, developmental, and travel costs but are also more often exposed to predators—all of which raises the question, why are animals so often willing to leave home even when this means leaving a familiar, resource-rich location? This question is particularly pertinent for species in which some individuals disperse while others do not or do not disperse as far. One species in which some individuals travel farther than others is Belding’s ground squirrel. Young male squirrels travel about 150 meters from the burrow in which they were born, whereas young females usually settle down only 50 meters or so from where they were born. Why should young Belding’s ground squirrels disperse at all, and why should the males disperse farther than their sisters?3. 

The word ” pertinent” in the passage is closet in meaning topuzzlingimportantcomplexrelevant

4.Accordingtoparagraph2,whatisofparticularinterestaboutthedispersalofBelding’sgroundsquirrels?

Youngsquirrelsdispersefartherthanadults.

Youngsquirrelsdisperseevenfromresource-richareas.Themalesandfemaleshavedifferentpatternsofdispersal.

Theyleavethemother’sburrowatanearlieragethanothersquirrels.Paragraph2ismarkedwithanarrow[→]

5.Itcanbeinferredfromparagraph2thatthephenomenonofdispersalisdifficulttoobserveinthewild

occursforreasonsthatarenotalwaysimmediatelyapparent

228ismotivatedbythedesiretoobtainmoreorbetterresourceshasfewbenefitsformostspeciesParagraph2ismarkedwithanarrow[→]

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Accordingtooneargument,dispersalbyjuvenileanimalsofmanyspeciesmaybeanadaptationagainstproblemsassociatedwithinbreeding.Whentwocloselyrelatedindividualsmate,theiroffspringaremorelikelytomanifestgeneticdiseasesthanaretheoffspringofgeneticallyunrelatedindividuals,andasaresult,inbreedingtendstoproduceanimalsthatarelesslikelytosurvivetoadulthoodandreproduce.Dispersalofjuvenilesmakesinbreedinglesslikely.

6.Whichofthesentencesbelowbestexpressestheessentialinformationinthehighlightedsentenceinthepassage?Incorrectchoiceschangethemeaninginimportantwaysorleaveoutessentialinformation.

Whencloselyrelatedindividualsmate,theiroffspringarelikelytomanifestgeneticdiseasesthatwillprobablybepassedontothenextgeneration.

Geneticdiseasesinheritedfromparentsthatarenotrelatedmakeitlesslikelythattheaffectedoffspringwillsurvivetoadulthoodandreproduce.

Whentworelatedindividualsmate,theiroffspringmaysurvivetoadulthood,buttheyareunlikelytoreproduce.

Thereisatendencyfortheoffspringofcloselyrelatedparentstohavegeneticdiseasesthatmakeitlesslikelytheywillsurviveandreproduce.Paragraph4

Ifavoidanceofinbreedingisthepointofdispersing,thenonemightexpectasmanyfemalegroundsquirrelsasmalestotravel150metersfromtheirnatalburrow.Infactfemalesdonotdisperseasfarasmales,perhapsbecausethecostsandbenefitsofdispersaldifferforthetwosexes.IthasbeensuggestedthatthereproductivesuccessoffemaleBelding’sgroundsquirrelsdependsontheirpossessionofaterritoryinwhichtoreartheiryoung.Femalegroundsquirrelsthatremainneartheirbirthplaceenjoyassistancefromtheirmothersinthedefenseoftheirburrowsagainstrivalfemales.Thus,thebenefitsofremainingonfamiliargroundaregreaterforfemalesthanformales.

7.Accordingtoparagraph4,youngfemaleBelding’sgroundsquirrelsmayremainclosertowheretheywerebornthandomalesinordertoavoidinbreedingwiththeirmalesiblings

avoidcompetitionwithotherfemalesforterritorysaveenergytheyneedtodefendtheirburrowsbenefitfromtheirmothers’help

Paragraph4ismarkedwithanarrow[→]Paragraph5

229Theremay,however,beanotherreasonwhymalemammalsdispersegreaterdistancesthanfemales.Theusualruleisthatmales,notfemales,fightwithoneanotherforaccesstomates,and,therefore,malesthatlosesuchconflictsmayfinditadvantageoustomoveawayfromsame-sexrivalsthattheycannotsubdue.AlthoughthishypothesisprobablydoesnotapplytoBelding’sgroundsquirrels,sinceyoungmaleshavenotbeenseenfightingwitholderonesaroundthetimeofdispersal,theideaismoreplausiblewithrespecttosomeotherspecies,suchaslions.

8.Accordingtoparagraph5,thehypothesisthatmalesdisperseasaresultofconflictswithothermalesisnotsupportedinthecaseofBelding’sgroundsquirrelsbecause

youngmalesquirrelsthatlosefightstoothermalesdonotdisperse

unlikemostspecies,itisthefemales,notthemales,thatfightwitheachother

thereisnoevidencethatyoungmalesquirrelsfightwithothermalesbeforedispersing

fightsbetweenmalesgenerallytakeplaceafterthemaleshavedispersedParagraph5ismarkedwithanarrow[→]9.

Theword”subdue”inthepassageisclosetinmeaningtoremovefightdefeataccept

Paragraph5

Theremay,however,beanotherreasonwhymalemammalsdispersegreaterdistancesthanfemales.Theusualruleisthatmales,notfemales,fightwithoneanotherforaccesstomates,and,therefore,malesthatlosesuchconflictsmayfinditadvantageoustomoveawayfromsame-sexrivalsthattheycannotsubdue.AlthoughthishypothesisprobablydoesnotapplytoBelding’sgroundsquirrels,sinceyoungmaleshavenotbeenseenfightingwitholderonesaroundthetimeofdispersal,theideaismoreplausiblewithrespecttosomeotherspecies,suchaslions.

Paragraph6

Lionsliveinlargegroups,orprides,fromwhichyoungmalesdisperse.Incontrast,thedaughtersoftheresidentlionessesusuallyspendtheirentirelivesclosetowheretheywereborn.Thesedentaryfemalesbenefitfromtheirfamiliaritywithgoodhuntinggroundsandsafebreedingdensintheirnatalterritory,amongotherthings.Thedepartureofmanyyoungmalelionscoincideswiththearrivalofnewmaturemalesthatviolentlydisplacethepreviousmastersoftheprideandchaseoffthemalesthatarenotyetadultsintheprideaswell.Theseobservationssupportthemate-competitionhypothesisformaledispersal.However,ifyoungmalesarenotevictedafterapridetakeover,theyoftenleaveanywaywithoutanycoercionfromadultmalesandwithouteverhavingattemptedtomatewiththeirfemalerelatives.

230Moreover,maturemalesthathaveclaimedapridesometimesdisperseagain,expandingtheirrangetoaddasecondprideoffemales,atatimewhentheirdaughtersinthefirstpridearebecomingsexuallymature.Inhibitionsagainstinbreedingapparentlyexistinlionsandcausemalestoleavehome.

10.Accordingtoparagraphs5and6,thepatternsofdispersalinBelding’sgroundsquirrelsandlionsaresimilarinwhichofthefollowingways?Youngmalesareforcedtodispersebyoldermales.

Avoidinginbreedingisprobablynotafactorintheexplanationofthepatternofdispersal.

Malesdispersewhennewsiblingsareborn.Themalesdispersefartherthanthefemales.Paragraphs5and6aremarkedwitharrows[→]

11.Thephrase”coincideswith”inthepassageisclosetinmeaningtoisdrivenby

occursatthesametimeasmakespossibleisasignof

12.Whydoestheauthorprovidetheinformationthat“ifyoungmalesarenotevictedafterapridetakeover,theyoftenleaveanywaywithoutanycoercionfromadultmalesandwithouteverhavingattemptedtomatewiththeirfemalerelatives”?Tosupporttheconclusionthatmadelionsdispersetofindmatestowhichtheyarenotcloselyrelated

Toindicatethatthemate-competitionhypothesisdoesnotfullyaccountforthedispersalofyoungmalelions

Toimplythatyoungmalelionsvoluntarilyleaveapridethathasbeentakenoverbecausetheadultmalespreventthemfrommatingwithinthepride

Toindicatethatmales,notfemales,leaveaprideafterithasbeentakenoverbyadultmalesParagraph4

■Ifavoidanceofinbreedingisthepointofdispersing,thenonemightexpectasmanyfemalegroundsquirrelsasmalestotravel150metersfromtheirnatalburrow.■Infactfemalesdonotdisperseasfarasmales,perhapsbecausethecostsandbenefitsofdispersaldifferforthetwosexes.■IthasbeensuggestedthatthereproductivesuccessoffemaleBelding’sgroundsquirrelsdependsontheirpossessionofaterritoryinwhichtoreartheiryoung.■Femalegroundsquirrelsthatremainneartheirbirthplaceenjoyassistancefromtheirmothersinthedefenseoftheirburrowsagainstrivalfemales.Thus,thebenefitsofremainingonfamiliargroundaregreaterforfemalesthanformales.

13.Lookatthefoursquares[■]thatindicatewherethefollowingsentencecouldbe

231addedtothepassage.

However,inbreedingcanbeavoidedwithoutbothmalesandtheirfemalerelativesdispersingthesamedistance.

Wherewouldthesentencebestfit?Clickonasquare[■]toaddthesentencetothepassage.

14.Directions:Anintroductorysentenceforabriefsummaryofthepassageisprovidedbelow.CompletethesummarybyselectingtheTHREEanswerchoicesthatexpressthemostimportantideasinthepassage.Someanswerchoicesdonotbelonginthesummarybecausetheyexpressideasthatarenotpresentedinthepassageorareminorideasinthepassage.Thisquestionisworth2points.

Dragyourchoicestothespaceswheretheybelong.Toreviewthepassage,clickon

ViewText.Manyyounganimalsdispersefromwheretheyareborn.●●●AnswerChoices

A.Thereareanumberofcompetingexplanationsofwhyanimalsdisperse,butnoneofthemisconsistentwithalltheobservedpatternsofdispersal.

B.Thereasonthereislittleinbreedingamonglionsisthatyoungmalesaredrivenawayfromtheirfemalerelativesbytheadultmaleswhoforciblytakeoveralionpride.

C.Inbreedingsignificantlylowersthelikelihoodthatoffspringwillsurvive,andsoavoidinginbreedingisasignificantbenefitofdispersal.

D.Sincemalesofmostspeciesmustestablishaterritoryformating,dispersingofthemalesmakesitmorelikelythatmostmaleswillbeabletoreproduce.

E.Thereneedtobesignificantbenefitsforaspeciestodispersebecausetherequirementsofdispersalinvolveenergycostsanddangersforthedispersingindividuals.

F.Inmammalspecies,youngmalesoftenleavetheirfamilygroupwhilerelatedfemalesbenefitfromremainingincloseassociationwitheachotherandtheirbirthplace.

TheMultiplierEffect

Paragraph1

ThecausesbehindtherapiddevelopmentoftheMinoanandMycenaeancivilizationsintheAegeanduringthelatethirdandsecondmillenniaB.C.E.haveintriguedscholarsforyears.Untilrecently,mostexplanationsattributedAegeandevelopmentto

232outsideinfluence.CivilizationhademergedinMesopotamiaby3000B.C.E,and,somearcheologistsargued,Mesopotamiantradeintroducedcivilizedideasandtechnologicalinnovationsintonearby,lessadvancedareas.OthershypothesizedthatcivilizationwasbroughttotheAegeanbyinvasionfromsomeadjacentregion,ofwhichAnatoliainmodernTurkeyseemedthemostplausible.

1.Paragraph1implieswhichofthefollowingabouttraditionalscholarshipconcerningthedevelopmentofAegeancivilizations?

ItfocusedontheinfluenceofAegeantradeonmoreadvancedcivilizationratherthantheinvasionoftheAegeanbyatechnologicallyadvancedculture.

ThedevelopmentofMinoancivilizationwasthoughttorequireadifferentexplanationfromthatforthedevelopmentofMycenaeancivilization.

ItmaintainedthattherapiddevelopmentofAegeancivilizationcouldbeexplainedonlythroughexternalinfluence.

TherewasgeneralagreementthatAnatoliaandMesopotamiawerebothresponsibleforthedevelopmentofcivilizationintheAegean.Paragraph 1 is marked with an arrow [→]

Paragraph 2

In a work published in 1972, Professor Colin Renfrew approached the problem from a different viewpoint. He argued that the scanty available evidence for invasion or immigration from Anatolia into Greece in the early Bronze Age (about 3300-2200 B.C.E.) showed that, at most, such incursion was limited, and that it could not be regarded as responsible for the transformation of society there. Trade, though clearly documented, was also an inadequate explanation in itself. To understand the major changes in social organization and complexity that took place, it was necessary, said Renfrew, to determine the impact that new variables emerging in the early Bronze Age may have had on every interrelated aspect of the local social system. The two new major developments he considered were changes in the subsistence economy and the introduction of bronze metallurgy.

2.Whichofthesentencesbelowbestexpressestheessentialinformationinthehighlightedsentenceinthepassage?Incorrectchoiceschangethemeaninginimportantwaysorleaveoutessentialinformation.

RenfrewsaidthatlocalvariablesaffectedthecomplexsocialorganizationoftheearlyBronzeAge.

RenfrewsaidthatthemajorchangesinsocialorganizationcouldbeunderstoodonlybyexaminingtheeffectsofthenewdevelopmentsthattookplaceintheearlyBronzeAge.

TheearlyBronzeAge,Renfrewsaid,wasatimeinwhichthereweremajorchangestomanyinterrelatedaspectsoflocalsocialsystems.

TounderstandthesocialorganizationandcomplexityoftheearlyBronzeAge,itwasnecessary,saidRenfrew,firsttodeterminewhatnewvariableshademerged.

233Paragraph3

TheeconomyofNeolithicGreecewasbasedongrowinggrainsandraisingsheep.EarlyinthethirdmillenniumB.C.E.,cultivationofgrapevinesandolivetreesalsobecameimportantinsouthernGreeceandtheAegeanIslands.Bothcropswereeminentlysuitablefortradeandstorageintheformofoliveoilandwine.Theyweregrownonlandthatwasnotsuitableforgrainfarming.Theircultivationrequiredworkatadifferenttimeofyearfromthatneededbygraincrops,andmuchofthiswork,suchasharvesting,wasrelativelylight.Asaresult,agriculturalyieldsweresubstantiallyincreasedwithoutdisruptingestablishedagriculturalpractice.Thatincreaseinturnallowed,orstimulated,populationgrowth.Forthefirsttimetherewasenoughdemandforspecializedcraftsandservicestojustifytheexistenceoffull-timecraftspeople,whocouldbesupportedfromtheextraagriculturaloutput.3.

Theword”justify”inthepassageisclosetinmeaningtoincludewithinthesocialsystemprovidearationalbasisforemployencourage

4.Accordingtoparagraph3,growinggrapevinesandolivetreesincreasedagriculturalyieldsbecause

grapesandolivesweremostlyusedfortraderatherthanforcompetingwithestablishedcropsinlocalmarkets

grapevinesandolivetreescouldbecultivatedonlandthatwasalsousedforraisingsheep

growinggrapesandolivesdidnotrequiretheservicesofspecializedworkersgrapevinesandolivetreesdidnotcompetewithothercropsforlandorlaborParagraph3ismarkedwithanarrow[→]

5.Accordingtoparagraph3,theincreasedimportanceofgrapeandolivecultivationledtowhichofthefollowingchangesinGreece?AnincreaseinthenumberofinhabitantsAnincreaseintheamountofgraintraded

AnincreaseinthepercentageoffarmersinthepopulationThedevelopmentofnewmethodsofstoringfoodsParagraph3ismarkedwithanarrow[→]

Paragraph4

SomecopperartifactsweremadeduringthefourthmillenniumB.C.E,buttherewerenotmanyofthemandtheyhadlittleeconomicorsocialsignificance.When,inthethirdmillennium,copperbegantobemixedwithtintoproducetherelativelyhardalloybronze,demandformetalgoodsgrew.Bronzecouldbeusedtomakearangeofusefulnewtoolsandweaponsandavarietyofimpressiveornaments.Thedemandformetalworkstimulatedfurtherspecializationincraftssuchastoolmakingandjewelry

234making.Thenewtoolspromotedthedevelopmentofothercrafts,likecarpentryandshipbuilding.Competitionforprestigiousorusefulcraftproductsandforcontroloftheirproducershelpedtoheightenbothsocialdifferenceswithincommunitiesandconflictsbetweenthem,resultingintheemergenceoflocalchieftains,whowerealsoinmanyinstanceswarriors.Thesechieftainsregulatedagriculturalandcraftproduction,operatingadistributionsystemthroughwhichthefarmerscouldobtaintoolsorornamentstheyneededorwanted.Theorganizationaldemandsofcontrolleddistributionmadeitnecessarytodevelopmethodsofmeasurementandrecording,whichledtothedevelopmentofwriting.6.

Theword”promoted”inthepassageisclosetinmeaningtorequired

benefitedfromencouragedspeededup

7.Accordingtoparagraph4,whydidtheinventionofbronzeleadtoincreasedconflict?

Itresultedinmoreeffectiveweaponsforwarriors.

Itledtocompetitionforthecontrolofskilledcraftspeopleandtheirproducts.

Itleftthecraftspeoplewhohadbeeninvolvedinmakingcopperproductswithoutandoccupation.

Itledtocompetitionforavailablesuppliesoftintobeusedintheproductionofbronze.

Paragraph4ismarkedwithanarrow[→]

8.Allofthefollowingarediscussedinparagraph4aschangesinGreeksocietyafterbronzewasintroducedEXCEPT:

Socialdifferentiationwithincommunitiesincreased.Metalcraftworkersbecamemorespecialized.

Methodswereinventedfordocumentingthedistributionofgoods.Craftworkersgainedgreaterindependencefromlocalchieftains.Paragraph4ismarkedwithanarrow[→]

Paragraph5

Renfrewarguedthatanysingleinnovationwouldhavehadalimitedornegligibleeffectonsocialorganizationbecausetheinherentlyconservativenatureofsocietiesactstominimizechange.However,theinteractionofseveralsimultaneousdevelopmentscreatedamultipliereffect.IntheAegean,increasedagriculturalproductivityprovidedthemeanstosupportcraftspecialization,whilebronzemetallurgyprovidedthetechnologyforproducinghighlyvaluednewproducts.Thesefactorssetinmotionaseriesofchangesinothersubsystemsofsociety.Thosechangesinturnresultedinwhat,inatermborrowedfromelectronics,arecalledpositivefeedbackloops—alterationsintheworkingsofasocialsystemthatservetoreinforce

235themselves.ThusAegeansocietywastransformedfromoneconsistingofbasicallyself-sufficientandegalitarianfarmingvillagestooneofprosperous,hierarchicalchiefdoms,withpalace-dwellingrulers,activelycompetingwithoneanotherbothathomeandininternationaltrade.

9.Thephrase“severalsimultaneousdevelopments”inthepassageisclosetinmeaningto

independentdevelopments

developmentsthatreinforcedeachotherdevelopmentsthatoccurredatthesametime

developmentsthatfollowedoneanotherinasequence10.Theword”hierarchical”inthepassageisclosetinmeaningtohavingseverallevelsofauthoritydependentonmilitarysupporthereditarynondemocratic

11.Whatroledoestheideaofa“multipliereffect”serveinRenfrew’sexplanationofthedevelopmentofcivilizationintheAegean?

Itallowshimtoarguethatthecombinedeffectofindividualdevelopmentscanleadtoamajortransformationofasocialorganization.

Itallowshimtoexplaintheideaofapositivefeedbackloop.

Itallowshimtoexplaintheinherentlyconservativenatureofsocieties.

Itallowshimtoexplainhowthechangesinagriculture,bronzemetallurgy,andcraftspecializationcameabout.12.Accordingtoparagraph5,thetransformationofAegeansocietyinvolvedallthefollowingEXCEPT

interdependenceofthesociety’svarioussocialandeconomicstructureseconomicsuccess

competitionbetweenchiefdomsforeconomicdominancesocialandpoliticalequality

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Inaworkpublishedin1972,ProfessorColinRenfrewapproachedtheproblemfromadifferentviewpoint.■HearguedthatthescantyavailableevidenceforinvasionorimmigrationfromAnatoliaintoGreeceintheearlyBronzeAge(about3300-2200B.C.E.)showedthat,atmost,suchincursionwaslimited,andthatitcouldnotberegardedasresponsibleforthetransformationofsocietythere.■Trade,thoughclearlydocumented,wasalsoaninadequateexplanationinitself.■Tounderstandthemajorchangesinsocialorganizationandcomplexitythattookplace,itwasnecessary,saidRenfrew,todeterminetheimpactthatnewvariablesemergingintheearlyBronze

236Agemayhavehadoneveryinterrelatedaspectofthelocalsocialsystem.■Thetwonewmajordevelopmentsheconsideredwerechangesinthesubsistenceeconomyandtheintroductionofbronzemetallurgy.

13.Lookatthefoursquares[■]thatindicatewherethefollowingsentencecouldbeaddedtothepassage.

Instead,Renfrewemphasizedthecomplexinternaldynamicsofchange.Wherewouldthesentencebestfit?Clickonasquare[■]toaddthesentencetothepassage.

14.Directions:Anintroductorysentenceforabriefsummaryofthepassageisprovidedbelow.CompletethesummarybyselectingtheTHREEanswerchoicesthatexpressthemostimportantideasinthepassage.Someanswerchoicesdonotbelonginthesummarybecausetheyexpressideasthatarenotpresentedinthepassageorareminorideasinthepassage.Thisquestionisworth2points.

Dragyourchoicestothespaceswheretheybelong.Toreviewthepassage,clickon

ViewText.ColinRenfrew’sexplanationoftheriseofAegeancivilizationrejectedtraditionalviewsthatthecausewasoneoranotherexternalinfluenceonthedevelopingsociety.●●●AnswerChoicesA.TheemergenceofAegeancivilizationwastheresultofinternalfactorsinteractingwitheachotherinawaythatmultipliedeachother’seffects.

B.Anincreaseinpopulationcreatedashortageofagriculturallandthatincreasedsocialtensionsandforcedmanyfarmerstobecomewarriorsforlocalchieftains.

C.Moreeffectivebronzeweaponsincreasedthepoweroflocalchieftains,whoimposedasysteminwhichtheycollectedfarmandcraftproductsinexchangeforprotectingtheirsubjects.

D.Oncepeoplebeganproducingbronze,itsurpassedwineandoliveoilasthemostimportantgoodtradedintheAegean.

E.Agriculturalsurplusesfromtheproductionofoliveoilandwineandtheintroductionofbronzetechnologytogethersupportedpopulationgrowth,thedevelopmentofcrafts,andeconomicexpansion.

F.Astheeconomydiversifiedandgrew,ahigherlevelofsocialorganizationwasrequired,aneedthatencouragedtheemergenceofchieftainswhoregulatedthedistributionofeconomicgoods.

237参：

DeterminingtheAgesofthePlanetsandtheUniverse：BCDAA,ABCBD,ACA,123CostsandBenefitsofDispersal：ADDCB,DDCCD,BBB,356TheMultiplierEffect：CBBDA,CBDCA,ADC,156

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